Praise

praise1
**Pronounced:** prāz ** Function: ** // verb // ** Meaning: ** ** 1 ** [+ obj]: to say or write good things about (someone or something): to express approval of (someone or something) ▪ Critics praised her as both an actor and director. ▪ He praised her cooking. ▪ A good teacher praises students when they do well. ▪ His poems praise nature. —opposite criticize

= Praise as a Motivator =
 * Is praise an effective or ineffective motivational or management tool?**
 * What affect does this have on Intrinsic or Extrinsic motivation?**

There seems to be opposing views between Researchers and Teachers (Instructors) as well as amongst each other. In this section we are going to re-view the benefits and the detriments of Praise. Many Instructors use praise as classroom management tool or as a motivational tool in adult learning.

Using praise as a classroom management tool to reinforce behaviour, may have adverse effects in adult education. Adult learners may perceive praise as manipulative and controlling, causing resentment and refuse to conform to conduct and responsibilities, thus having the potential to negatively effect affective learning. Using praise as a management tool may also stifle creativity. Praise may also lower adult learner's confidence, which they may already diminished, thus negating any intrinsic motivation. Using praise as a motivator to reinforce achievement of specific learning tasks, goals or performance objectives, does not provide the adult learner with positive feedback. If praised to frequently learners motivation may diminish for achieving goals learners were already motivated to do, thus negatively effecting learning in all three learning domains and learning may become exclusively reward based or extrinsic.

Raymond Wlodkowsk2 writes "praise is often ineffective because it is not related to exemplary achievement, lacks specificity (the learner does not know exactly why it was given), and it is not credible. For example, sometimes it is given because learners elicit it themselves. They seem happy and enthusiastic about their work, show it to us, and we do not know what else to say. Other times we may give it because we feel sorry for learners who are having difficulty and use it to boost their morale. Many competent adults do not want or expect praise. They want clear positive feedback about their progress and may experience praise as annoying and patronizing. Furthermore, praise given too frequently and indiscriminately may begin to seem perfunctory and predictable to learners, encouraging them to interpret it as a form of flattery or 'jabber'. In some instances, praise has been used to terminate learner behaviour. A learner initiated discussion is, perhaps, in our opinion, going on a bit too long. We toss out a compliment on what has been said to provide pleasant closure and move on to something else."

Ineffective Praise
Ineffective praise can stifle students' natural curiosity and desire to learn by focusing their attention on extrinsic rewards rather than the intrinsic rewards that come from the task itself (Brophy, 1981). It is very easy to get praise wrong. Here are a few ways that praise can unexpectedly demotivate people.


 * Ineffective Praise**3
 * [[image:http://www.highlandschools-virtualib.org.uk/ltt/inclusive_enjoyable/images/diamond.gif width="11" height="11"]] || Is random and unsystematic ||
 * [[image:http://www.highlandschools-virtualib.org.uk/ltt/inclusive_enjoyable/images/diamond.gif width="11" height="11"]] || Rewards mere participation in an activity and conveys no significant information ||
 * [[image:http://www.highlandschools-virtualib.org.uk/ltt/inclusive_enjoyable/images/diamond.gif width="11" height="11"]] || Uses the performance of other pupils as the basis for judging achievement ||
 * [[image:http://www.highlandschools-virtualib.org.uk/ltt/inclusive_enjoyable/images/diamond.gif width="11" height="11"]] || Attributes success to ability alone or to other factors such as luck or easiness of task ||
 * [[image:http://www.highlandschools-virtualib.org.uk/ltt/inclusive_enjoyable/images/diamond.gif width="11" height="11"]] || Places emphasis on extrinsic motivation - performing a task for praise or other rewards ||
 * [[image:http://www.highlandschools-virtualib.org.uk/ltt/inclusive_enjoyable/images/diamond.gif width="11" height="11"]] || Focuses attention on the teacher as an authority figure who controls and manipulates ||
 * [[image:http://www.highlandschools-virtualib.org.uk/ltt/inclusive_enjoyable/images/diamond.gif width="11" height="11"]] || Intrudes into the work on the task and breaks the flow of work/concentration ||


 * Dangers of Ineffective Praise**3
 * [[image:http://www.highlandschools-virtualib.org.uk/ltt/inclusive_enjoyable/images/diamond.gif width="11" height="11"]] || It may weaken self-motivation and can result in pupils seeking extrinsic rewards rather than doing work for its intrinsic appeal ||
 * [[image:http://www.highlandschools-virtualib.org.uk/ltt/inclusive_enjoyable/images/diamond.gif width="11" height="11"]] || Research showed that, when praise is frequent and lacks focus, pupils may offer answers more tentatively, eye-checking with teacher, apparently worried about pleasing him/her ||
 * [[image:http://www.highlandschools-virtualib.org.uk/ltt/inclusive_enjoyable/images/diamond.gif width="11" height="11"]] || Pupils used to receiving a lot of praise tend not to engage in more challenging tasks, preferring easier tasks and their easy reward from the teacher - such pupils also tend not to persist in demanding tasks and can be less confident when challenged ||
 * [[image:http://www.highlandschools-virtualib.org.uk/ltt/inclusive_enjoyable/images/diamond.gif width="11" height="11"]] || Even the most able may be deterred and may also not share answers with others, seeking praise only for themselves ||
 * [[image:http://www.highlandschools-virtualib.org.uk/ltt/inclusive_enjoyable/images/diamond.gif width="11" height="11"]] || It is unlikely to work with pupils who are not interested in pleasing the teacher - and this tends to be increasingly common as children get older ||
 * [[image:http://www.highlandschools-virtualib.org.uk/ltt/inclusive_enjoyable/images/diamond.gif width="11" height="11"]] || When a child has become accustomed to rewards, if the rewards are removed then the child may become demotivated ||
 * [[image:http://www.highlandschools-virtualib.org.uk/ltt/inclusive_enjoyable/images/diamond.gif width="11" height="11"]] || Some studies showed that when individuals are performing a task for rewards then performance can deteriorate ||
 * [[image:http://www.highlandschools-virtualib.org.uk/ltt/inclusive_enjoyable/images/diamond.gif width="11" height="11"]] || Some research has shown that rewards may be effective in the short term, but may not be in the longer term ||

Behaviorists Theories on Praise
The learning theory labeled as behaviorism can be defined when a behavior is produced as a result of a learner's response to a stimuli. The response is usually repeated when feedback from the educator is provided. This feedback may be either in the form of punishment or praise as long as the behavior being desired is exhibited and understood by the learner for future reference.4 Well known behaviorists are Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner, as well as, Edward Thorndike and James Watson. Each behaviorist has conducted experiments that support their own theory of behaviorism and is well known for their research.

Thorndike
Edward Thorndike is known in the present day for his "Law of Effect." Thorndike determined through his studies that animals learn the most through trial and error and that learning is achieved by the formation of connections. Thorndike's study was based on a puzzle box he placed animals in to observe the response of getting out of confinement for food. If the response was learned the animal was able to exit out of the box. This was an example of instrumental conditioning which led Thorndike to the "Law of Effect" philosophy.5

Pavlov
The classical conditioning theory was what makes Ivan Pavlov so memorable in the modern day. This type of conditioning does not include either praise or punishment but builds associations. Pavlov used dogs to display his theory of learning using food and a bell. When he would give the dogs food he noticed that it made the dogs salivate. The food was an unconditioned stimulus because a dog will salivate when he knows he is getting fed. Once Pavlov got the dogs used to hearing a bell when food was provided the dogs began to salivate when they heard the bell, even when no food was displayed. The bell is a conditioned stimulus. The dogs began to associate the bell with food which made the dogs salivate. However, the response changed once the dogs associated the bell without receiving food. It was then that the dogs no longer salivated. There was no praise or punishment used in this experiment; however, Pavlov got the dogs to associate the bell with food which triggered a response from the animals.6

Watson
John Watson stated that behaviorism is "simply the study of what people do." His theory is that a response can be traced back to the stimulus that was used and also that a response is the result of showing a stimulus to the learner. It is essential that the educator is aware of the difference between what has been preconditioned with a particular individual and what has been inherited in this type of theory.7

Skinner
Operant conditioning is B.F. Skinner's behavior theory. This means that learning is a function of apparent behavior. Skinner believes that feedback from the educator is a major factor in this theory. When a form of reinforcement is provided to the learner, they are prone to respond to the stimuli given. This reinforcement Skinner describes could be a negative or positive thing; whatever will trigger the response the educator is wanting from the learner.8

Suggested Teaching Practices
Since behavior enhances changes in the way students think, learn and participate, teachers should most definitely incorporate behaviorism theories into lessons. Ways of doing this are using different teaching techniques throughout the class to keep students stimulated. Using drills or games in the classroom is a way of promoting a change in behavior. Drills or games require the student to know the material prior to the activity and when the student receives praise for knowing the material that is seen as positive reinforcement with promotes the behavior repeatedly. If the student does not know the material prior to the activity, it still serves a purpose. The student will see that other students are being rewarded for knowing the material which might trigger a behavior change the next time. When using a question and answer review session in class, try to prepare the questions so that the outcome of answering is in a positive manner that way the student will not get discouraged and will want to continue to learn so that he/she can participate again and be praised for doing so. Giving grades or prizes are also excellent ways of changing behavior in the classroom as long as it is positive. Like most examples, once the student receives a piece of candy, gum or a good grade for doing something that will promote the same behavior again. However, not all feedback and reinforcement has to be positive. In certain situations negative feedback will also result in a positive behavior change. For example, receiving a bad grade on a paper or test could possibly result in harder work and more effort on the next assignment. We need to keep in mind as educators that most feedback will result in a behavior change. Keeping the idea of behaviorism in our classrooms and teaching methods will help our students succeed, **regardless of age.**


 * Points Arising from Research**3
 * [[image:http://www.highlandschools-virtualib.org.uk/ltt/inclusive_enjoyable/images/diamond.gif width="11" height="11"]] || Behaviourist approaches use rewards (including praise) as a means of conditioning pupils to respond positively to tasks. Assertive Discipline, for example, makes use of rewards systems. ||
 * [[image:http://www.highlandschools-virtualib.org.uk/ltt/inclusive_enjoyable/images/diamond.gif width="11" height="11"]] || However, other research has found that praise may not have the effect intended and may be counter-productive when not used carefully. For example, in several experiments rewards produced poorer results in tasks (see “Rewards and Learning” reference below). ||
 * [[image:http://www.highlandschools-virtualib.org.uk/ltt/inclusive_enjoyable/images/diamond.gif width="11" height="11"]] || Rewards for major achievement on completion of task are more effective than regular rewards during the process. ||
 * [[image:http://www.highlandschools-virtualib.org.uk/ltt/inclusive_enjoyable/images/diamond.gif width="11" height="11"]] || Praise can, in some circumstances, reduce confidence and willingness to tackle difficult tasks. ||
 * [[image:http://www.highlandschools-virtualib.org.uk/ltt/inclusive_enjoyable/images/diamond.gif width="11" height="11"]] || Teachers tend not to be as positive as they think they are. ||
 * [[image:http://www.highlandschools-virtualib.org.uk/ltt/inclusive_enjoyable/images/diamond.gif width="11" height="11"]] || An English study found that teachers tend to make positive remarks about academic work (though less so with older pupils), but negative ones about behaviour. ||
 * [[image:http://www.highlandschools-virtualib.org.uk/ltt/inclusive_enjoyable/images/diamond.gif width="11" height="11"]] || We expect to make and receive negative remarks (often joking put-downs) in our culture ||

Summary of Behaviourists Theory on Praise
All behaviorists have done many studies to prove their theories. Every one of them has made a difference in the world of education and has given educators a way to incorporate the idea of behaviorism into their classrooms; regardless of the audience age.

Ability vs. Effort
Praise, when used to reinforce either ability or competence, may have an adverse effect. If a learner is praised for their ability, they may become performance objective or goal orientated, viewing learning tasks as tests of their ability and competence level. Learners with learning goals may view tasks as way to acquire skills as well as competence. This would be a good example of an extrinsic reward.

Praise, when used to reinforce effort would help learners to focus on their intrinsic values, thus enabling the learner to focus on their learning goals. With consistent effort, learners may see improvements in learning and pursue learning without praise as a reward.


 * Attribution theory** is an influential contemporary theory developed by Fritz Heider, Harold Kelley, Edward E. Jones, Lee Ross, and Bernard Weiner. It incorporates behavior modification in the sense that it emphasizes the idea that learners are strongly motivated by the pleasant outcome of being able to feel good about themselves. It incorporates cognitive theory and self-efficacy theory in the sense that it emphasizes that learners' current self-perceptions will strongly influence the ways in which they will interpret the success or failure of their current efforts and hence their future tendency to perform these same behaviors. The theory explores how individuals "attribute" causes to events and behavior.9

Mueller and Dweck (1998) gave 400 children a test and then told each that they had got 80% right. They then told half that this must be because they were intelligent and the other half it must be because they worked hard. They then offered them all a choice of an easy task or a hard task. 65% of those told they were clever chose the easy task, which was chosen by only 45% of those who were praised for effort.

In other words, those who had been praised for being clever subsequently avoided difficult tasks that might make them appear less intelligent. Interestingly also, more of those who had been praised for effort chose the harder task as they now saw hard work as gaining desirable praise.

Summary on Attribution Theory
Those praised for effort worked harder while those praised for intelligence worked less. If you tell a person they already have the ability do so something, you are also telling them that they do not need to work.

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Effective Praise
Giving effective praise and feedback are two instructional strategies that can create a positive learning environment. Most teachers and instructors use these two strategies. Some researchers suggest that praise and feedback may not always be used frequently or effectively. Praise and feedback should be given frequently and specifically at the end of an activity or task in order for it to be effective. Reinforcement, either praise or feedback, of the activity or task increases a learners' intrinsic motivation. If the learners are being reinforced for their achievement, their attitude towards learning increases positively.


 * Effective Praise**3
 * [[image:http://www.highlandschools-virtualib.org.uk/ltt/inclusive_enjoyable/images/diamond.gif width="11" height="11"]] || Can take the form of “appreciation” in which positive feelings are expressed about and individual’s contribution ||
 * [[image:http://www.highlandschools-virtualib.org.uk/ltt/inclusive_enjoyable/images/diamond.gif width="11" height="11"]] || Can take the form of “encouragement” in which we try to build the individual’s confidence to progress with tasks/challenges ||
 * [[image:http://www.highlandschools-virtualib.org.uk/ltt/inclusive_enjoyable/images/diamond.gif width="11" height="11"]] || Recognizes that different individuals need different types/amounts of praise ||
 * [[image:http://www.highlandschools-virtualib.org.uk/ltt/inclusive_enjoyable/images/diamond.gif width="11" height="11"]] || Shows appreciation of individuals’ characteristics and what they bring to the classroom ||
 * [[image:http://www.highlandschools-virtualib.org.uk/ltt/inclusive_enjoyable/images/diamond.gif width="11" height="11"]] || Helps develop pupils’ self-confidence ||
 * [[image:http://www.highlandschools-virtualib.org.uk/ltt/inclusive_enjoyable/images/diamond.gif width="11" height="11"]] || Is related to the pupil’s achievement ||
 * [[image:http://www.highlandschools-virtualib.org.uk/ltt/inclusive_enjoyable/images/diamond.gif width="11" height="11"]] || Specifies particular details of the achievement, instead of being bland and general ||
 * [[image:http://www.highlandschools-virtualib.org.uk/ltt/inclusive_enjoyable/images/diamond.gif width="11" height="11"]] || Is linked to the satisfaction of target criteria, but can also be given for effort ||
 * [[image:http://www.highlandschools-virtualib.org.uk/ltt/inclusive_enjoyable/images/diamond.gif width="11" height="11"]] || Gives information about the value of the achievement and competence ||
 * [[image:http://www.highlandschools-virtualib.org.uk/ltt/inclusive_enjoyable/images/diamond.gif width="11" height="11"]] || Is delivered spontaneously in a natural tone of voice and in varied language ||
 * [[image:http://www.highlandschools-virtualib.org.uk/ltt/inclusive_enjoyable/images/diamond.gif width="11" height="11"]] || Is accompanied by body language which reinforces the message ||
 * [[image:http://www.highlandschools-virtualib.org.uk/ltt/inclusive_enjoyable/images/diamond.gif width="11" height="11"]] || Makes the pupil reflect on his/her approach to the task - both during and afterward ||
 * [[image:http://www.highlandschools-virtualib.org.uk/ltt/inclusive_enjoyable/images/diamond.gif width="11" height="11"]] || Relates present achievement to prior work ||
 * [[image:http://www.highlandschools-virtualib.org.uk/ltt/inclusive_enjoyable/images/diamond.gif width="11" height="11"]] || Is geared to the pupil’s ability and success in challenging tasks ||
 * [[image:http://www.highlandschools-virtualib.org.uk/ltt/inclusive_enjoyable/images/diamond.gif width="11" height="11"]] || Shows how further success can be achieved ||
 * [[image:http://www.highlandschools-virtualib.org.uk/ltt/inclusive_enjoyable/images/diamond.gif width="11" height="11"]] || Creates intrinsic motivation - desire to do tasks for their own sake ||

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= Praise vs. Encouragement, Gratitude 12 = Support and encourage with praise. Adult learners are generally nervous about stepping into a classroom after a long absence from the classroom. Make them comfortable enough to come to you with their concerns and you will ward off the drop-out syndrome.13

Most of us believe that we need to praise our children more. However, there is some controversy regarding this point. If we always reward a child with praise after a task is completed, then the child comes to expect it. However, if praise is not forthcoming, then its absence may be interpreted by the child as failure. According to Naomi Aldort, "Children who are subjected to endless commentary, acknowledgment, and praise eventually learn to do things not for their own sake, but to please others." But the avoidance of all praise is not a solution either. According to Jan Hunt, it is the intention behind the words. "Genuine praise" would be loving words that arise spontaneously and warmly from the parent's heart, without the thought of manipulating the child's behavior. I believe, the real message we want to communicate is encouragement, encouraging a child **(or any learner, including adults)** for trying even in the face of failure. Dreikurs et al, furnished the following example sentences to illustrate the difference between praise and encouragement.

One of the main differences between praise and encouragement is that praise often comes paired with a judgment or evaluation, such as "best" or "highest" in these examples. In some earlier web pages, I provided lists of "encouraging words" but in hindsight, some of what I said could have been interpreted as "evaluative praise," which I wanted to avoid. One reader of this webpage has also noted that not all of Dreikur's examples of encouragement illustrated above are completely free of evaluation. However, you can be the judge, and test out your own responses to my "encouragement machine". While one has to think more, it may be better to use "descriptive recognition," giving a more precise description of what you wish to encourage.
 * **Praise** || **Encouragement** ||
 * You are the best student I ever had. || You are a fine student. Any teacher will appreciate and enjoy you. ||
 * You are always on time. || You sure make an effort to be on time. ||
 * You have the highest score in the class on this exam. || You did very well on this exam. ||
 * I am so proud of you. || You seem to really enjoy learning ||
 * You're the best helper I ever had. || The room looks very neat since you straightened the bookshelves. ||
 * I'm so proud of your artwork. || It is nice to see that you enjoy art. ||


 * **Praise** || **Encouragement** ||
 * Simulates rivalry and competition || Stimulates cooperation and contribution for the good of all ||
 * Focuses on quality of performance || Focuses on amount of effort and joy ||
 * Evaluative and judgmental; person feels "judged" || Little or no evaluation of person or act; person feels "accepted" ||
 * Fosters selfishness at the expense of others || Fosters self-interest, which does not hurt others ||
 * Emphasis on global evaluation of the person-"You are better than others." || Emphasis on specific contributions -"You have helped in this way." ||
 * Creates quitters || Creates triers ||
 * Fosters fear of failure || Fosters acceptance of being imperfect ||
 * Fosters dependence || Fosters self-sufficiency and independence ||